Adventist Family Churches
Jehovah’s Witnesses
General Notes
J. F. Rutherford succeeded Charles Taze Russell as president of the Watch
Tower Bible and Tract Society and in 1931 the name “Jehovah’s Witnesses” was
adopted.
Rutherford continued the practice of setting dates for the Second Coming,
predicting 1920, 1925, and 1940. When those dates failed, a process began of
replacing Russell's writings with Rutherford's.
Among the doctrines abandoned were Russell's beliefs in the gathering of the
Jews and the great pyramid prophecies. Rutherford revised Russell's view of
Armageddon; it was no longer an anarchistic struggle, but rather a universal
war. Also, ethics emerged as a concern of importance in addition to eschatology.
A hierarchical organization replaced the congregational structure of Russell's
days. All members were given the job of selling and distributing Watch Tower
literature. Money began to be put into purchasing buildings for meetings,
called kingdom halls.
Theologically, the Witnesses are Unitarians. They reject the Trinity and the
divinity of Christ. While seeing the Bible as a source of theology, they give
it their own unique interpretation. They have attacked mainline churches as the
instruments of Satan, and other religious groups have attacked their theology.
Some writers have considered the Jehovah’s Witnesses to be a cult.
In recent years the Jehovah’s Witnesses has produced its own translation of
the Bible. One significant change is the translation of the Greek
"states" as "stake" instead of "cross." Christ is
pictured as dying on a stake, his hands above his head, not on a cross. The
traditional understanding of Hell is also rejected. The wicked are believed to
be destroyed, not sent to eternal torment.
Their understanding of the Second Coming changes as time passes after the
crucial year of 1914. If the 144,000 were sealed in 1914, they face the problem
of a dwindling number of people alive from that time. They annually record the
ever-smaller number receiving the bread and wine at the annual Passover
service. (Only the 144,000 can partake.) Their belief led to a major problem in
the 1970s. It had been taught that at the end of one generation, before all
those sealed in 1914 have died (approximately 1975), the end would come in a
recognizable way. When that didn't happen, a significant number of believers
left the group.
The current understanding of most members is that they are not part of the
elite 144,000, but are among the great many who will live forever on earth,
ruled by the heavenly sealed (the 144,000).
There is a common, characteristic lifestyle based on their beliefs. Free
time is devoted to religious activity, including selling and distributing
literature and seeking converts. Witnesses live a religiously separatist
existence, avoiding even routine social contacts with non-believers. Several of
their beliefs can lead to increased conflict with the larger society, such as
pacifism and their refusal to salute the flag, recognize civic holidays, or
participate in politics. Controversy over their rejection of blood transfusions
has frequently led to public attention.
Becoming a Jehovah’s Witness involves a formal renunciation of any prior
Baptism. That act of renouncing is considered binding by many Churches,
including the Roman Catholic Church. Therefore, in matters such as marriage, a
desire to return to the Roman Catholic Church, etc., the person is treated as
unbaptized. To return to full Communion with the Roman Catholic Church, the
person would be required to make a Profession of Faith.
Specific Religious Practices
There is a rejection of secular loyalty and identity. Civic holidays,
birthdays, honoring the American flag, patriotic songs, and military service
are rejected.
Baptism and the Lord’s evening meal are observed as symbols but not
sacraments.
Understanding of Healing
The practice of faith healing is forbidden. Miraculous healing is seen as
having ended in the first century.
Reproductive Issues
No genetic counseling is condoned. Sterilization is forbidden. Artificial
insemination is forbidden, although one source says that it is permitted using
the husband’s sperm. All sexual activity outside of marriage is forbidden, and
sexual immorality is seen as permanently condemning the believer. The group’s
official literature has been inconsistent, but at least at some points has
taught that a woman who has been raped is condemned by that fact. Some
statements indicated that her status would only change if she didn't scream and
fight against the attacker. Obviously how rape is viewed would be very
important in caring for a woman who has been sexually assaulted.
Abortion
All abortion is forbidden.
End of Life Issues/Terminal Care
Prolongation of life by artificial means is not supported. Euthanasia is
forbidden.
Autopsies/Care of the Body
An autopsy with no body parts removed is acceptable only if required by law.
Special Treatment Issues (Blood,
drugs, dietary, etc.)
Alcohol is acceptable in moderation.
There is a general prohibition of the transfusion of blood, and any blood removed from the body must be disposed of rather than stored or used in some way. Specific components of blood, techniques, procedures, and equipment may be prohibited, accepted, or left to the judgment of the individual believer. I would note that, contrary to what would be expected with such a strong central authority, at various times I've received wildly different statements of "official" policy. What follows is what appears to be the current most accurate description.
Prohibited:
whole blood transfusion whether collected from a donor
or from yourself
packed RBCs (red blood cells)
WBCs (white blood cells)
plasma
platelets
operative collection of blood
if the blood is stored in any way
non-blood replacement fluids (plasma expanders)
vaccine not prepared from blood
the use of a heart-lung machine if not primed with blood
dialysis
other equipment if the
circulation outside the body is not interrupted
albumin
immune globulins
hemophiliac preparations
organ transplants (cornea,
kidney, tissue)
Regarding transplant, there has appeared to be a
logical progression from earlier statements, allowing transplant so long as the
intent is to remove what blood is present as far as possible. That appears to
be accepted regardless of the amount that is actually then introduced into the
patient’s body. Perhaps the most clear demonstration I’ve seen of that
principle was in a case in which a Jehovah’s Witness was asked to donate bone
marrow for a transplant. It was presented as official policy that bone marrow
donation was acceptable since the intent was to donate the marrow, not the
blood. It was stated at that time that on the other hand it wouldn't be
acceptable for a Witness to receive the bone marrow. At other times I've been
told both that no bone marrow transplant is acceptable, or that it is
acceptable to donate or receive.
In discussing transplant, aggressive
chemotherapy or surgery, it is very important to include the expected or
possible need for blood transfusion in the course of treatment. A refusal to
allow transfusion may easily make the proposed treatment unethical because of
increased risk. Ethically, it would seem inescapable that the physician must
disclose any concern or reluctance to honor the patient’s refusal of
transfusion. If a physician is not willing to honor such a refusal, the patient
should be referred or transferred.
Jehovah’s Witnesses would claim a right to
refuse transfusion, and they see that as extending to children under their
care, with or without the child’s personal acceptance of that religious belief.
There is a consensus both in the courts and in medical ethics that no refusal
of life-saving blood transfusion should be honored if it involves a child. When
a person reaches the age of majority in that state (usually 18), then the
person may refuse transfusion on their own behalf.
In the situation of an unconscious patient,
great care must be taken to honor what decision the person would be making if
they were in fact able to communicate. In my opinion it should not be presumed
that because the person is a Jehovah’s Witness they would be refusing
transfusion. Also, the family’s desires may not be the same as the patient’s.
What should be considered are the following questions: Has the patient in the
past refused blood transfusion for religious reasons? Were those situations
life-threatening? It could be presumed that the patient would make the same
decision in the present situation.
If there has not been such a “track record,” has
the patient clearly and strongly stated to medical or nursing staff, or on an
admission form, or in a prepared document that they refuse transfusion? On the
present admission or in the past?
Has the person already decided the issue, via a
communication to the attending physician?
The process of assessment and determination re:
transfusion should be clearly charted in the medical record. As needed, the
Ethics Committee should be consulted.
It should also be noted that there are cases
where the patient only refused transfusion when family members were present. In
private, the option of blood transfusion was accepted. Some have requested
transfusion but wanted the bag and tubing to be covered to hide the fact that
it was blood, or to receive transfusions outside of visiting hours. Some felt
transfusion was acceptable if they did not directly authorize it, welcoming a
court order as a relief of responsibility. Some individuals interpreted the
issue for themselves as only a problem if the transfusion was of whole blood,
seeing platelets, packed red cells, etc. as morally acceptable.
Notes for
Pastoral Care
A frequent problem for health care institutions
has been proselytizing by Jehovah’s Witnesses or other groups, in the form of
unwelcome visits to patients and in the distribution of literature. A clear
hospital policy is needed protecting the religious rights of patients,
including the right to privacy.
Membership
In 1997, membership in the United States was
974,719.
For additional information, the official web
site of the Jehovah's Witnesses is:
Seventh-day Adventists
General
Notes
The Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA) is an
evangelical sabbatarian church founded in the mid 1800s. The Church views the
writings of its founder, Ellen G. White, as prophetic gifts of the Holy Spirit.
In 1855 the Church moved to Battle Creek, Michigan.
Along with their emphasis on celebrating
Saturday as the Sabbath and the "sanctuary work of Christ" (return of
Christ to cleanse the sanctuary of God),the Seventh-day Adventists accept many
common theological understandings. Their statement of belief includes
acceptance of the Bible as the rule of faith and practice, the Trinity, creation
from nothing, Baptism by immersion, and salvation by the atonement of Jesus
Christ.
They believe that Christ's immanent return will
be followed by a thousand year period. They believe that the dead await the
resurrection in an unconscious state. Their acceptance of the seventh-day
Sabbath has been joined with an emphasis upon the Old Testament health laws
such as the distinction between clean and unclean meats. They abstain from
alcohol and tobacco.
The Church is organized as a representative
democracy.
Specific
Religious Practices
Saturday is observed as the Sabbath, from
sundown Friday to sundown Saturday. There are three ordinances, adult Baptism
by immersion, the Ordinance of Humility, and the Lord’s Supper using bread and
wine. There are no special prayers at death. Communion may be ministered to a
patient in the hospital.
Understanding
of Healing
The Church believes in instant and miraculous
divine healing as well as medical treatment. The Church has prayer for the sick
and anointing with oil.
Reproductive
Issues
Genetics, birth control, sterility testing are
accepted. Artificial insemination is accepted between husband and wife.
Abortion
Abortion is only justifiable for rape, incest,
or danger to the mother’s life.
End of
Life Issues/Terminal Care
No stated position, but traditionally the Church
has supported maintaining life as long as possible. No stated position on
euthanasia.
Transplantation/Organ
Donation
There are no restrictions.
Autopsies/Care
of the Body
Autopsy is acceptable. There are no restrictions
on disposal of the body.
Special
Treatment Issues (Blood, drugs, dietary, etc.)
Drugs are avoided if at all possible. Physical
medicine and rehabilitation are stressed and recommended along with therapeutic
diets. The usual diet is a balance of fruits, vegetables, cereals and nuts.
Some members do eat lean well-cooked meat, but only those types approved in
Leviticus 11. Pork, therefore, is not eaten. Members do not drink tea or
coffee. The Church is opposed to the use of hypnotism under any circumstances,
including for medical purposes.
Membership
In 1994, membership in the United States was 775,349.
Page was last updated on 08/14/00